An exclusive project report on Biodiversity. This project report will help you to learn about: 1. Meaning of Biodiversity 2. Value of Biodiversity 3. Types 4. Factors Affecting Biodiversity 5. Significance of Biodiversity in Natural Medicine 6. Causes of Reduction in Biodiversity 7. Conservation 8. Hotspots 9. Threats 10. Role of Biodiversity in Agriculture 11. Biodiversity Profit of India.
Contents:
- Project Report on the Meaning of Biodiversity
- Project Report on the Value of Biodiversity
- Project Report on the Types of Biodiversity
- Project Report on Factors Affecting Biodiversity
- Project Report on the Significance of Biodiversity in Natural Medicine
- Project Report on the Causes of Reduction in Biodiversity
- Project Report on the Conservation of Biodiversity
- Project Report on the Hotspots of Biodiversity
- Project Report on the Threats to Biodiversity
- Project Report on the Role of Biodiversity in Agriculture
- Project Report on Biodiversity Profit of India
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Project Report # 1. Meaning of Biodiversity:
Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life. This can refer to genetic variation, species variation, or ecosystem variation within an area, biome, or planet. Terrestrial biodiversity tends to be highest near the equator, which seems to be the result of the warm climate and high primary productivity.
Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability of all types of microbes, plants and animals on the earth. It includes not only the many species that exist, but also the diversity of population that makes up a species, the genetic diversity among individual’s life form and the many different habitats and ecosystems around the globe.
The existence and welfare of the human race depends on health and well-being of other life forms in the biospheres. Marine biodiversity tends to be highest along coasts in the Western Pacific, where sea surface temperature is highest and in mid-latitudinal band in all oceans.
The term biological diversity was used first by wildlife scientist and conservationist Raymond F. Dasmann in 1968 in this book A Different Kind of Country advocating conservation. Biologists most often define biodiversity as the “totality of genes, species, and ecosystems of a region”.
An advantage of this definition is that it seems to describe most circumstances and presents a unified view of the traditional three levels at which biological variety has been identified:
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i. Species diversity
ii. Ecosystem diversity and
iii. Genetic diversity.
iv. Agricultural biodiversity
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Biological diversity, simply stated, is the diversity of life. As defined in the proposed US Congressional Biodiversity Act, HR1268 (1990), “biological diversity means the full range of variety and variability within and among living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur, and encompasses ecosystem or community diversity, species diversity, and genetic diversity.” India is one of thel2 mega biodiversity countries in the world.
Project Report # 2. Value of Biodiversity:
The value of biodiversity is difficult to define and is often impossible to estimate. However, biodiversity provides a variety of environmental services from its species and ecosystems that are essential at the global, regional and local levels.
Some important services are production of oxygen, reduction of carbon dioxide, fixing and recycling of nutrients, protection of soil and so on. The loss of biodiversity contributes to global climatic changes, which we experience today. The loss of forest cover along with the increase in global carbon dioxide has contributed to the ‘greenhouse effect’.
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Food, clothing, housing, energy, medicines are the various resources that are directly or indirectly linked to the biological variety present in the biosphere. Thus, it is obvious that the preservation of biological resources is essential for the well-being and the long-term survival of mankind.
These values of biodiversity are:
i. Consumptive Values:
These include utilisation of timber, food, fuel wood and fodder by local communities. For example, fisher-folks are completely dependent on fishes and know where and how to catch them and other edible aquatic animals and plants.
ii. Productive Value:
The genetic properties of microbes, plants and animals are used biotechnologically to develop better varieties of crops for use in farming and plantation programs or to develop better livestock.
Biodiversity, to industrialist, is a rich storehouse from which to develop new products. Biodiversity, to pharmacists, is the raw material from which new drugs can be developed from plant or animal products. The commonly used modern drugs derived from plant sources are given in Table 4.36.
Many new species of plants and animals are being constantly discovered in the wild which may be useful for the betterment of human life. Their loss, however, is a great economic loss for mankind.
iii. Social Value:
The social values are linked to consumptive and productive value of biodiversity. ‘Ecosystem people’ or traditional societies value biodiversity as a part of their livelihood, as well as through cultural and religious sentiments. Cultivation of rice and many other cereals are linked to certain social culture and customs.
A great number of crops have been cultivated in traditional agricultural systems and this permitted a wide range of produce to be grown and marketed throughout the year, which helps to overcome the failure of one crop.
Recent practices have resulted in giving economic incentives to farmers to grow cash crops for national and international markets, ignoring local needs. This resulted in local food shortage, unemployment and vulnerability to drought and flood.
iv. Ethical and Moral Values:
There are several cultural, moral and ethical values which are associated with the sanctity of all forms of life. Nature in Indian civilisation has been preserved for hundreds of generations through local traditions and customs. Tribal people in several states of our country have a number of sacred groves or ‘deorais’ around ancient sacred sites and temples. This acts as gene banks for several wild plants.
v. Aesthetic Value:
Biodiversity with its inherent beauty and value creates in us aesthetic, imaginative and creative knowledge. It is wonderful to watch a spider weave its complex web, to watch the majestic gaite of a lion, to sit in a forest and listen to the noises of birds, to watch a fish feeding and many other such fascinating things.
The history and culture of various countries are replete with plant and animal imagery. Symbols of various wild animals have been venerated for thousands of years, such as lion of Hinduism, elephant of Buddhism and the vehicles of various deities are different animals. Hindus worship various plants such as banyan trees and the sacred Basil or the ‘Tulsi’ has been grown in the courtyards of each household for centuries.
vi. Optional Values:
There is every possibility that many species including traditional varieties of crops and domestic animals may come of use in the future. To keep such future possibilities open our preservation of biodiversity must also include traditionally used strains already in existence in crops and domestic animals.
According to economists the values of biodiversity is of two main types — use values and non-use values. Use values refer to either current or future utility value of biodiversity to humankind. It is further subdivided into direct, indirect and optional values. The direct use value of biodiversity can be further sub-divided into three categories: consumptive, productive and non-consumptive.
These various type of values are shown in Table 4.37. The non-use values or existence values are intrinsic values, unassociated with actual or potential use. It reflects the utility that people receive from simply knowing something exists.
The fact that some people in developing countries are willing to pay conservation organisations to campaign on behalf of endangered species and habitats indicate that people do attach economic value to the existence of some species.
Thus, the importance of biodiversity touches all spheres of our lives, as summarized in Table 4.38.
Project Report # 3. Types of Biodiversity:
Biodiversity is generally analysed at three different levels, each of which has its own significance.
These are:
i. Genetic Diversity:
Within each member of any animal or plant species there are often found a number of varieties or races or strains which slightly differ from each other in one, two or a number of characteristics such as shape, size, resistance to insects, pests and diseases, ability to withstand adverse conditions of environment, etc.
These differences result as individual differ widely from others of its own species in its genetic make-up, owing to the large number of combinations possible in the genes that give every individual its specific characteristics. This diversity in the genetic make-up of a species is referred to as genetic diversity.
For a healthy breeding population, genetic diversity is essential. If the number of breeding individuals is reduced then dissimilarity of genetic make-up is reduced and in-breeding results. It leads to genetic anomalies which eventually lead to the extinction of a particular species.
The diversified ‘gene pool’ of wild species is from where own crops and domestic animals have been developed over thousands of years. Wild varieties today are being further exploited to create new varieties of more productive, disease-resistant crops and to breed superior domestic animals. Modern biotechnology are being utilised to manipulate genes to develop better types of medicines and a variety of industrial products.
Thus, genetic diversity has considerable economic value whether bred into advanced agro-system or inherent in traditional ones. Traditional technologies are more stable and sustainable but are also considerably less productive. While modern technologies such as Green Revolution technologies form high- yielding varieties but are genetically narrow and vulnerable.
Genetic diversity, thus, will remain extremely important in the future because of the increasing genetic uniformity and due to the vulnerability of improved varieties. New biotechnological techniques can be expected to increase the use of wild germplasm in breeding programmes.
The threat presented by global climatic changes requires the retainment of maximum biodiversity and also the access to important genetic resources in the transitional zone be protected.
ii. Species Diversity:
In any ecosystem the biotic component is composed of a few species only or a large number of microbe, plant and animals species. These species react and interact with each other and with the abiotic factors of the environment. The diversity related to the numbers and relative abundance of species within a community are referred to as species diversity.
(I) Patterns of species diversity:
Geologists have observed a number of different patterns of species diversity, which are:
a. Diversity in Geological Time:
Since the emergence of life, some 3.2 billion years ago, the number of species on earth has varied over the ages. Fossil records provide a glimpse of changes in diversity through geological time. There appears to have been at least three periods of lineage proliferation. The initial diversification of complex life forms began in the Cambrian period and by the end of it there was a period of pervasive extinction.
Species diversity again rose to a new peak in the Paleozoic era and by the end of Permian period it declined once more due to mass extinction. The third rapid rise in the number of families is most recent and has contributed to the development of the modern fauna.
b. Latitudinal diversity of species:
It is a recognised fact that the tropics hold a great store of un-described species. Among plants, animals and probably also microbes, the number of species increases markedly towards the equator, with a few exceptions. Species, genus and family diversity in marine environment also follow a similar trend. Species of terrestrial trees, birds and mammals, show greater species richness toward the tropics.
c. Habitat and physical conditions:
Within a given latitudinal belt, the number of species may vary widely among habitats according to their productivity, degree of structural heterogeneity and suitability of physical conditions.
For example, McArthur and McArthur (1961) showed the relationship between structure and diversity by plotting the diversity of birds observed in different habitats according to foliage height diversity (a measure of structural complexity of vegetation).
Similarly, Pianka (1967) in the desert habitats of South Western United States, found a close relationship between the number of species of lizards and the total volume of vegetation per unit of area.
(II) Components of species diversity:
Whittaker in 1972 expressed different components of species diversity such as:
a. Alpha diversity:
This is the local diversity which is expressed as the number of species in a small area of more or less uniform habitat, Alpha or local diversity is, thus, sensitive to habitat, area and intensity of sampling effort.
b. Beta diversity:
The difference in species from one habitat to the next is referred to as beta diversity. The greater the turnover or difference of species between habitats, the greater is the beta diversity.
c. Gamma diversity:
Gamma or regional diversity is the total number of species observed in all habitats within a region or geographic area that includes no significant barriers to dispersal of organisms. The boundaries of a region thus depend on which organisms we consider. The distribution of species within a region reflects their selection of suitable habitats rather than their inability to disperse to a particular locality.
If each species occur in all habitats within a region, then the alpha and gamma diversities are the same (Fig. 4.72A and D). If each habitat has unique flora and fauna, then gamma diversity equals the average alpha diversity multiplied by the number of habitats in the region (Fig. 4.72B). To quantify beta diversity a useful one, is the number of unique habitats recognised by species within a region.
When all the species are same in all the habitat then there is effectively only a single habitat within the region and beta diversity is equal to 1 (Fig. 4.72A and D). As habitat specialisation increases more habitats are recognised and then gamma diversity equals alpha diversity multiplied by beta diversity.
у diversity = α diversity × β diversity
We can, thus, calculate the number of unique habitats recognized by species within a region
β diversity = у diversity /α diversity.
iii. Ecosystem Diversity:
Biodiversity viewed at the ecosystem level, that includes the great variety of habitat types and biomes, are generally referred to as ecosystem diversity. There are different types of ecosystems on earth, each having its own array of distinctive interlinked species based on the differences in the habitat.
Description of ecosystem diversity can be done for a specific geographic region, or a country, a state or for a district. Distinctive ecosystems include landscapes like forests, grasslands, deserts, mountains etc. or of aquatic ecosystems like rivers, lakes, sea etc.
Ecosystems may be natural or modified. Modified type of ecosystems is formed due to human interference and when it is changed to other types of uses, such as farm- land or urban areas. Ecosystem are said to be natural when it is relatively undisturbed by human activities.
Ecosystems are most natural in wilderness areas. When natural ecosystems are misused or overused their productivity eventually decreases and becomes barren. Such ecosystems are then said to be degraded.
The above three levels of biodiversity describe .a hierarchy from the individual and population levels of genetic diversity, through community levels of species diversity and diversity of higher taxa to the ecosystem level.
Project Report # 4. Factors Affecting Biodiversity:
i. Site Selection:
Medicinal plant materials derived from the same species can show significant differences in quality when cultivated at different sites, owing to the influence of soil, climate and other factors.
These differences may relate to physical appearance or to variations in their constituents, the biosynthesis of which may be affected by extrinsic environmental conditions, including ecological and geographical variables, and should be taken into consideration.
Risks of contamination as a result of pollution of the soil, air or water by hazardous chemicals should be avoided. The impact of past land uses on the cultivation site, including the planting of previous crops and any applications of plant protection products, should be evaluated.
ii. Ecological Environment and Social Impact:
The cultivation of medicinal plants may-affect the ecological balance and, in particular, the genetic diversity of the flora and fauna in surrounding habitats. The quality and growth of medicinal plants can also be affected by other plants, other living organisms and by human activities.
The introduction of non-indigenous medicinal plant species into cultivation may have a detrimental impact on the biological and ecological balance of the region. The ecological impact of cultivation activities should be monitored over time, where practical.
The social impact of cultivation on local communities should be examined to ensure that negative impacts on local livelihood are avoided. In terms of local income-earning opportunities, small- scale cultivation is often preferable to large-scale production, in particular if small-scale farmers are organized to market their products jointly.
If large scale medicinal plant cultivation is or has been established, care should be taken that local communities benefit directly from, for example, fair wages, equal employment opportunities and capital reinvestment.
iii. Climate:
Climatic conditions, for example, length of day, rainfall (water supply) and field temperature, significantly influence the physical, chemical and biological qualities of medicinal plants.
The duration of sunlight, average rainfall, average temperature, including daytime and night-time temperature differences, also influence the physiological and biochemical activities of plants, and prior knowledge should be considered. WHO guidelines on good agricultural and collection practices (GACP) for medicinal plants.
iv. Soil:
The soil should contain appropriate amounts of nutrients, organic matter and other elements to ensure optimal medicinal plant growth and quality. Optimal soil conditions, including soil type, drainage, moisture retention, fertility and pH, will be dictated by the selected medicinal plant species and/or target medicinal plant part (Aslam, 2006).
The use of fertilizers is often indispensable in order to obtain large yields of medicinal plants. It is, however, necessary to ensure that correct types and quantities of fertilizers are used through agricultural research. In practice, organic and chemical fertilizers are used.
Human excreta must not be used as a fertilizer owing to the potential presence of infectious microorganisms or parasites. Animal manure should be thoroughly composted to meet safe sanitary standards of acceptable microbial limits and destroyed by the germination capacity of weeds. Any applications of animal manure should be documented.
Chemical fertilizers that have been approved by the countries of cultivation and consumption should be used. All fertilizing agents should be applied sparingly and in accordance with the needs of the particular medicinal plant species and supporting capacity of the soil.
Fertilizers should be applied in such a manner as to minimize leaching. Growers should implement practices that contribute to soil conservation and minimize erosion, for example, through the creation of streamside buffer zones and the planting of cover crops and “green manure” (crops grown to be ploughed in), such as alfalfa.
v. Irrigation and Drainage:
Irrigation and drainage should be controlled and carried out in accordance with the needs of the individual medicinal plant species during its various stages of growth. Water used for irrigation purposes should comply with local, regional and/or national quality standards.
Care should be exercised to ensure that the plants under cultivation are neither over- nor under-watered. In the choice of irrigation, as a general rule, the health impact of the different types of irrigation (various forms of surface, sub-surface or overhead irrigation), particularly on the risks of increased vector-borne disease transmission, must be taken into account.
vi. Plant Maintenance and Protection:
The growth and development characteristics of individual medicinal plants, as well as the plant part destined for medicinal use, should guide field management practices. The timely application of measures such as topping, bud nipping, pruning and shading may be used to control the growth and development of the plant, thereby improving the quality and quantity of the medicinal plant material being produced.
Good agricultural practices for medicinal plants any agrochemicals used to promote the growth of or to protect medicinal plants should be kept to a minimum, and applied only when no alternative measures are available. Integrated pest management should be followed where appropriate.
When necessary, only approved pesticides and herbicides should be applied at the minimum effective level, in accordance with the labelling and/or package insert instructions of the individual product and the regulatory requirements that apply for the grower and the end-user countries. Only qualified staff using approved equipment should carry out pesticide and herbicide applications.
All applications should be documented. The minimum interval between such treatments and harvest should be consistent with the labelling and/or package insert instructions of the plant protection product, and such treatments should be carried out in consultation and with the by agreement of the buyer of the medicinal plants or medicinal plant materials.
Growers and producers should comply with maximum pesticide and herbicide residue limits, as stipulated by local, regional and/or national regulatory authorities of both the growers’ and the end-users’ countries and/or regions. International agreements such as the International Plant Protection Convention and Codex Alimentarius should also be consulted on pesticide use and residues.
Project Report # 5. Significance of Biodiversity in Natural Medicine:
There is a wide variety of naturally derived drugs which still serve as important therapies in medicine today. Many substances have been derived from traditional medicine, e.g. digitalis (from Foxglove), ergotamine (from contaminated rye), quinine (from Cinchona), etc. More recently, many antibiotic, antifungal and anticancer agents have been derived from bacteria, fungi, plant and animal sources.
The conservation of biodiversity throughout the world is of significance for the mankind and indeed to the constancy of the whole world. The vast genetic variety available in terrestrial plants, animals and micro-organisms offers a wealth of possibilities for the betterment of mankind in the production of foods and medicines.
Natural products offer a vast source of chemical diversity and yield unusual and unexpected lead structures. Although not always understood, secondary metabolites often have important biological function and are generally produced by plants, animals and micro-organisms for specific reasons.
Biodiversity affects the metabolic pathways of species and modified phytoconstituents are produced thus there is an excellent chance to get newer molecules from corresponding species.
Project Report # 6. Causes of Reduction in Biodiversity:
In any ecosystem, disturbance of any type generally reduces its biological diversity. The pressure of rising human demands coupled with environmental pollution has damaged the biotic component in various degrees.
The major causes of reduction in biodiversity are:
A. Destruction of natural ecosystems:
The expanding human establishments has contributed largely to the rapid decline in biodiversity.
The destruction of natural ecosystems are:
(a) The Boreal Coniferous forests of the north are probably the modest as far as losses of biological diversity is concerned.
(b) Temperate and Sub-tropical regions consisting of coniferous forests are now reduced to isolated patches of forest and woodland, standing amidst vast stretches of plains, the grass prairies of North America, Cedar groves of Lebanon and the hardwood forests of Europe are fast disappearing. Only 12.3 million hectares out of the original 31 million hectares has been left.
(c) Tropical regions comprising of developing countries (often designated as mega diversity countries) are endowed with the richest flora and fauna of the world. These areas are burdened with a rapidly rising population, housing more than three- fourth of the world population.
The need for food and improved living conditions have resulted in damage of natural ecosystems leading to an annual deforestation rate of 61,520 sq. kms per year for closed forests only.
(d) Wetlands are considered as important store houses of biological diversity and help to regulate water flow and pollutants from moving waters. These wetlands are being drained and dried for agriculture use or are converted to aquaculture ponds or for human settlements.
In industrialised countries like Australia, New Zealand, California (U.S.A.) and others almost 90% of the wetland systems have been lost. However, in Canada, which possesses one-fourth, of the world’s entire wetlands, the losses are relatively low due to thin population density.
(e) Mangroves and other coastal wetlands are important buffering zone between land and sea and possess a rich flora and fauna unique of their own. Almost half of mangrove forests have been cleared in Ecuador, nearly three-fourth in Thailand and 95% of Indonesia’s mangroves are earmarked for pulpwood production.
In addition to reduction in biological diversity, elimination of mangrove ecosystem also causes erosion of coastline and decrease in fish production.
(f) Coral-reef ecosystems are also damaged due to elimination of mangroves. Coral reefs are highly diverse and productive ecosystems and are marine equivalent to tropical forest. Due to the reduction of mangroves, streams and rivers, deposit an increasing amount of silt and sediments, while pollutants (particularly pesticides) harm the underwater biota directly.
Philippines, which once boasted of its possession of the world’s richest and most diverse biota, has lost about 71% of its coral reefs.
B. Adverse changes in environment:
Biotic and abiotic factors of environment may undergo unfavorable changes resulting in reduction of biodiversity.
These changes are:
i. Environmental pollution.
ii. Over-exploitation of selected species.
iii. Habitat fragmentation due to human activity, population and development, where biological communities form small patches surrounded by urban or agricultural land.
iv. Introduction of exotic species into habitats which is not its natural abode has caused extensive damage to the natural biotic community of that ecosystem. For example, Eucalyptus and Casuarina plants introduced into the Indian subcontinent are ecologically harmful as they tend to suppress the original species of the locality.
v. Natural calamities.
C. Chain extinctions:
In any ecosystem, everything is related to everything else. Extinction of a component species result in a chain of events affecting a number of other species adversely. For example, extinction of each tropical plant species leads to a loss of about 10-30 species of insects that are highly specialised in their feeding habits and behaviour.
Project Report # 7. Conservation of Biodiversity:
Being one of the so-called mega diversity countries, India has a broad range of ecosystems that contain a vast array of flora and fauna. The loss of biodiversity is occurring worldwide and in India, too, this trend presents a clear threat.
Its forest biodiversity faces increasing pressure from tree felling for fuel and timber, cattle grazing, gathering of non-timber forest products, poaching, uncontrolled fires, and conversion of land to agriculture etc.
Residents in forest areas have long- established sedentary agricultural systems and traditions of extracting resources from areas of ecological importance. The population boom coupled with high incidence of poverty has quickened the pace of degradation in India.
India, thus, is committed to biodiversity conservation. It has developed an extensive system of parks and sanctuaries covering more than 4 percent of its land areas.
Conservation steps have been taken in the following ways:
i. In-Situ Conservation:
Biodiversity at all levels can be best preserved by setting aside an adequate representation of wilderness as protected areas through in-situ conservation. Setting up a network of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries etc., each with distinctive ecosystems, would preserve the total diversity of life of a region.
The conservation of genetic resources through their maintenance within natural or even human-made ecosystems in which they occur is termed as in-situ conservation. It includes a system of protected areas of different categories, managed with different objectives to bring benefit to the society.
The in-situ conservation includes an extensive system of protected areas such as National Parks, Sanctuaries, Nature Reservoir, Natural Monuments, Cultural Landscapes, and Biosphere Reserves etc. The objective of these areas is the preservation of relatively intact natural ecosystems, where biological diversity from microbes, microscopic plants and animals to the giant trees and large mammals are all equally protected.
However, in these areas, a particular species cannot be protected individually as in an ecosystem various species are interdependent on each other. The conservationist’s view-point is in dealing with areas that are relatively species-rich, or those that have rare, threatened or endangered species or those with ‘endemic’ species which are not found anywhere else.
Generally, some rare endemic species are found in a small area and such areas must be given added importance as their biodiversity is a special feature of that region. On the other hand, animals such as elephants, which require different types of habitat to feed during different seasons, require a large enough area so as to include such diverse habitat types.
ii. Ex-Situ Conservation:
Endangered species can be conserved outside its natural habitat through ex-situ conservation by carefully controlled situation such as a botanical garden for plants and zoological parks for animals.
When conservation is done outside the natural habitat of organisms, it is called ex-situ conservation. Here, sample populations are conserved in genetic resource centres, zoological parks, botanical gardens, culture collections etc. or are conserved in the form of gene pools and gamete storage for fishes, germplasm banks for seeds, pollen, semen, ova, cells etc.
Plants are readily maintained than animals. These breeding programmes for rare plants and animals are, however, very expensive and requires expertise to make these species multiply under artificially managed conditions.
In ex-situ conservation seed banks, botanical gardens, pollen storage, tissue culture, genetic engineering etc. have been playing crucial role. When an animal is on the verge of extinction it has to be carefully bred such that interbreeding does not lead to poorly adapted progeny or in the production of inadequate number of offspring’s.
Modern zoos undertake breeding programmes of endangered animals and even assisting in artificial breeding. They take care of all the needs of animals even in providing enclosures that stimulate their wild habitats. In India, such conservation practices have been done for all the three species of crocodiles.
The Madras Crocodile Trust Bank is one such example, where crocodiles have grown in number and are successfully laying two clutches of eggs a year, compared to one in the wild. The Guwahati zoo has been successfully breeding the very rare pygmy hog, while the Delhi zoo has successfully bred the rare Manipur brow-antlered deer.
The success of the breeding programme also lies in the reintroduction of these species into its original wilderness. This requires reconstruction of the degraded habitat and stringent measures to be taken against poaching or other man-made disturbances, which had been the primary cause for the reduction in such species population.
iii. Conserving Biodiversity through Eco-Development:
India’s Forest Research Education and Extension Project (FREEP) have enlisted local communities to preserve its precious biodiversity through a strategy known as eco-development.
Eco-development involves developing alternative resources and sources of income for the many thousands of poor people who depend on protected natural habitats for their livelihood. This has initiated groups of villagers to take responsibility for conserving natural resources in nearby forests.
India has traditionally relied on policing to safeguard its protected areas. They have used walls, gates, guards and guns to protect parks, sanctuaries etc., which have proved ineffective in preventing exploitation of these areas by local communities.
It has often led to confrontation between wildlife authorities and villagers. On the other hand, eco-development has been able to secure willing cooperation by providing alternatives to reliance on the natural resources of protected areas. FREEP has launched a long-term initiative to strengthen India’s forestry research system, improve forestry education and expedite the use of research findings in forestry extension.
The biodiversity conservation activities of FREEP have provided experience that has proved useful for another program, the Eco-development Project, financed by International Development Association (IDA) and the Global Environment Facility Trust Fund.
Project Report # 8. Hotspots of Biodiversity:
The biodiversity of the earth is unevenly distributed and is concentrated in specific ecological regions. A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region that is both a significant reservoir of biodiversity and is threatened with destruction.
The biodiversity hotspots were originally identified by Dr. Norman Myers. There are more than a thousand major eco-regions in the world, of which 200 Eco regions are said to be the richest, rarest and most distinctive natural areas. These areas are said to be the ‘Global 200’.
The number of endemic species (referred to earlier) has been found to be concentrated in large numbers in certain areas. Identification of these species and their habitat is important for practical conservation and to understand the underlying causes that drive diversification. Once lost, these endemic species can no way be recovered.
The important facts which were taken into consideration were:
i. Very high total species numbers
ii. Endemicity, whether of common or unusual lineages
iii. Unusual combinations, characteristics of communities
iv. Super speciose taxa.
Although endemic species richness was the primary criteria for demarcating hotspot areas, other characteristics were:
i. These areas should be already threatened or under threat.
ii. The site should include a diverse range of habitat.
iii. Specialist species should be of adequate amount and adapted to specific edaphic conditions.
iv. These areas should contain important gene pools of potentially useful plants or plants of value to people.
These criteria’s of biodiversity fall into three contrasting types:
(a) Continental hot spots which are sites of very high diversity, often with unusual endemic species, sometimes called mega, hyper and super diversity centres.
(b) Large islands, also called continental islands that have diverse distinctive faunas which include relict faunas long extinct on the main continents.
(c) Oceanic islands which are often low in total species numbers but with high proportions of endemics, unusual combination of species and peculiar evolutionary lineages.
Critiques of Hotspots:
Biodiversity hotspots do not address the concept of cost. The purpose of biodiversity hotspots is not just to identify regions that are of high biodiversity value, but also to direct available funds to such small land areas of the world.
This was the main point behind the initial exposition of the idea — that a majority of the world’s biodiversity could be protected by conserving a small amount of land. Subsequently, hotspots became known as “Silver bullet solution”.
Project Report # 9. Threats to Biodiversity:
The evils of overuse and misuse of most of our ecosystems have started to show. Due to this unsustainable resource use, the once productive forests and grasslands have turned into barren deserts and the fertile lands have been converted into wastelands.
Mangrove forests have been felled for fuel wood and the land cleared for prawn farming. This has led to a decrease in the habitat essential for the breeding of marine fishes. These changes have a grave impact in the long run.
The current destruction of the diverse tropical forests and coral reefs is of great concern worldwide. Scientists have speculated that by 2,050 approximately 10 million species will be eliminated. At the present rate of extinction, about 25% of the world’s species will undergo extinction fairly rapidly.
It may occur at the rate of 10,000-20,000 species per year. The majority of these extinctions will occur in the bio-rich areas such as tropical forests, wetlands and coral reefs.
Pattern of Degeneration of Biological Diversity:
The general pattern of extinction indicates that nearly 75% of extinctions have occurred on islands, instead of main-lands. This has occurred due to European colonisation with their exotic animals and plants. Agricultural activities expanded and a systematic destruction of natural habitats occurred. The wildlife had no place to escape and thereby they perished.
Degeneration of Biological Diversity:
During the course of organic evolution a number of species disappeared. Biological extinction is a natural phenomenon which has taken place in a balanced way. Before man’s interference the rate of extinction was one species per thousand years.
However, due to the pressure of human activity in a span of three hundred years the world has lost about 30 species of higher animals, which accounts for one species per year. However, the situation is much more grave as these higher animals constitute about 2-3% of the known species of living organisms.
Project Report # 10. Role of Biodiversity in Agriculture:
India is a centre for crop diversity. It is the homeland for 167 cultivated species and 320 wild relatives of crop plants. India is considered to be the centre of origin of 30,000-50,000 varieties of rice, pigeon pea, mango, turmeric, ginger, sugarcane, gooseberries etc. In terms of contribution to world agriculture India ranks seventh.
Biodiversity of West Bengal:
The biodiversity of West Bengal is a rich assemblage of diverse habitats and vegetation’s having eight different forest types. Diversity is further reflected in different types of ecosystems available – mountain ecosystem of the north; forest ecosystem formed of semi-evergreen, deciduous, dry, moist and tidal varieties that extend over the major part of the state; fresh water ecosystem; semiarid ecosystem in the western part; mangrove ecosystem in the south and coastal marine ecosystem along the shoreline.
West Bengal, having such diverse ecosystems, has resulted in rich faunal diversity consisting of 10,013 species out of a total of 89,451 species present in India, which amounts to 11.19%. The floral diversity is also rich having 10.36% of our countries flora with representation of 4,622 species out of a total of 44,594 floral species seen in India.
Biodiversity enriched districts are Darjeeling followed by Kolkata, South 24 parganas. Medinipur, North 24 parganas, Nadia, Malda, Murshidabad etc. The floral highest diversity is seen in Darjeeling (2,439 species) while the faunal highest diversity is seen in Kolkata (4,256 species) followed by Darjeeling (4,166 species).
Mega-Diversity Zones:
The zone between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn is warm and humid. This wide belt around the globe is provided with a rich and diverse plant, animal and microbial life. It is here that more than half of the total number of species present in our planet occurs. Countries which occur in this belt are referred to as mega-diversity countries.
The mega-diversity countries are groups of countries in which less than 10% of the global land surface has more than 70% of the lands biodiversity. Mega-diversity countries are unusually rich in all forms of biodiversity, although data for such categorisation relies on higher vertebrates, plants and a few insect groups.
The mega-diversity countries of the world are Brazil, Columbia, Mexico, Australia, Indonesia, Peru, Malaysia, Ecuador, India, Zaire and Madagascar. However, according to Michael J. Jeffries (1997) there are 12 mega-diversity countries, including China in the above list of 11.
For the above countries the recorded approximate number of flowering plant species, the annual rate of deforestation (hectares per year) for closed forests only and the share of land surface as percentage of the total land surface available of this planet are given in Table 4.43.
At present the number of mega-diversity countries has increased to 17 by the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (2007), with the inclusion of Democratic Republic of Congo, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, South Africa, U.S.A., and Venezuela.
India as a Mega-Diversity Nation:
Geological events since 70 million years ago, leading to the formation of India’s present landmass, suggests a high level of biological diversity. India’s special geographical position or ‘niche’ between three distinctive centres of biological evolution and radiation of species is responsible for our rich and varied biodiversity.
India, because of its rich variety of species is among the top 10 bio-rich nations. Many of the species found in India are not found elsewhere. The number of species India has and India’s world ranking in mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and angio-sperms is given in Table 4.44.
India also has 1,022 species of ferns, 1,082 species of orchids, 50,000 identified species of insects including 13,000 butterflies and moths. It is speculated that the number of unidentified species could be several times higher.
India has many plants and animals that are endemic to the country. Endemic species are those species which are confined only to a particular locality. These species are very important from the point of view of conservation as their disappearance means extinction of the species as they are not found anywhere else.
The habitat in which these endemic species thrive is very important. The importance of such habitat or locality is further highlighted; as such localities possess a number of endemic species distributed in several taxonomic categories or groups.
In relation to such endemism, it is estimated that about 18% of Indian plants are endemic and found nowhere else other than India. The flowering plants have a much higher degree of endemism containing one third which are not found anywhere else in the world. High biodiversity has also been noted in cultivated crops and breeds of domestic livestock in India.
About 30,000 to 50,000 varieties of rice and a number of cereals, vegetables and fruits have been cultivated. The highest diversity of cultivars is seen in the high rainfall areas such as Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Northern Himalayas and the North-eastern hills. In India, gene banks have collected 22,000 pulses and 34,000 cereals.
Among the animals in India, 62% of the total amphibians found are unique to the country. Among the 153 species of lizards, 50% are endemic. High endemism are also noted in groups such as insects, marine worms, centipedes, mayflies and fresh water sponges. Among the mammals, India has 27 indigenous breeds of cattle, 40 breeds of sheep, 22 breeds of goat and 8 breeds of buffaloes.
Today due to the boom of human population, the need for more food has arisen. So, to increase the production, we have introduced various exotic species to our country. These exotic species either due to their high growth rate or production of more milk or being very hardy have outdone the indigenous species.
For example, Jersey and Holstein cows have largely replaced the Indian cattle like the Brahma bull; high-yielding cultivars have eaten away into centuries old landraces of crops; cash crops have replaced food crops; eucalyptus and wattle plantations have replaced the mixed shola forests, and so on.
Thus, the Indian landscape is slowly beginning to loose its individuality. So, proper planning and conservation of our endemic species has to be undertaken.
Project Report # 11. Biodiversity Profit of India:
India contains a great wealth of biological diversity (Table 4.39), with a wide spectrum of habitats from tropical rain forests to alpine vegetation and from temperate forests to coastal wetlands. India is blessed with two hot spots – the Western Ghats and the Eastern Himalayas from among 18 biodiversity hot spots in the world-study carried out in the eighties.
Later, Myers (2000), brought out an updated list of 25 hot spots and the two hot spots present in India are included amongst the top eight most important hot spots. Recently (February 2, 2005) the total number of hotspots has been increased to 34.
India is also bestowed with 26 recognised endemic centres that are home to nearly a third of all the flowering plants identified and described to date. India, with a mere 2.4% of the world’s area, accounts for 7.31% of the global faunal total with a faunal species count of 89,451 species.
Some salient features of India’s biodiversity are listed:
1. India has two major realms (the Palaeoarctic and the Indo-Malayan) and three biomass (tropical humid forests, tropical dry/deciduous forests and warm deserts/ semi-deserts).
2. Ten biogeographic regions are present in India the Trans-Himalayan, the Himalayan, the Indian desert, the semiarid zones, the Western Ghats, the Deccan Peninsula, the Gangetic plain, North-East India, and the islands and coasts.
3. India is one of the 12 centres of origin of cultivated plants.
4. India has 5 world heritage sites, 14 biosphere reserves, and 19 Ramsar wetlands (Table 4.40). The protected areas of India include 88 national parks and 490 sanctuaries covering an area of 1.53 lakh sq.km.
