Disaster relief requires a lot of steps to be followed and measures to be undertaken. Any integrated framework for disaster relief will necessitate proper planning and its enforcement in practical terms, as and when needs.
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Items which attain centre-stage while planning and preparing for disaster relief measures include the following:
(i) Search
(ii) Rescue
(iii) Evacuation
(iv) Shelter
(v) Resettlement/relocation camps (Temporary)
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(vi) Livestock relief measures
(vii) Debris removal/clearance
(viii) Disposal of the dead bodies
(ix) Fire-control
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(x) Food
(xi) Communication
(xii) Access
(xiii) Water supply
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(xiv) Power supply
(xv) Subsidized supply (Temporary)
(xvi) Health and sanitation
(xvii) Public information
(xviii) Security
(xix) Contribution requirements
(xx) Safety and welfare inquiry.
The post-disaster phase, the foremost relief operations which are undertaken are Search read Rescue (SAR). The untraced disaster victims are searched and rescued with the help of local communities, specialist group of people and sniff dogs, heavy machine tools such as cranes, earthmovers, bulldozers, cutters, boat rafts, vehicles, and helicopters.
Generally a sector is demarcated for each SAR team and in the case of predictable slow one-set disasters they are geared up and placed in a standby position to get into action as and when required trained rescuers. SAR is followed by the process of evacuation which primarily involves the relocation of the disaster affected population from areas of risk to a safer destination.
For successful evacuation to happen, an early and accurate warning system is required, besides marking of safe escape routes, a consistent policy towards evacuation and long-term public education on various aspects of evacuation.
In the contemporary modern world, the tools, the techniques and the methods of search rescue and evacuation have advanced considerable, thus bringing down the relative rate of mortality and morbidity quite remarkably. Scientific and technological advancement has played an important role. Geographical information system (GIS), remote sensing techniques, satellite imagery and other geographical technique have emerged as major tool in SART and evacuation process.
Modern tele-communication and advanced transportation system fitted with much required medical facilities have improved the SAR and evacuation scenario to a great extent. All kinds of networking have become very vital to achieve best possible results, so has been the role of early warning system (EWS) and skilled manpower in these areas.
Another important aspect of disaster relief, measure is shelter for disaster victims for the purpose of temporary rehabilitation. However, the shelter camp being established should be disaster specific, site specific, culture specific and time-duration specific. Any proper mechanism of shelter provision needs following elements for incorporation.
A shelter strategy depends on factor like level and extent of short and long-term intervention design options, resources required, frequency and intensity of disaster, etc. Based on the aforementioned factors and may other details a disaster strategy has to be weighted in favour of large shelter space, temporary relief camps, rehabilitation settlements, amount of repair and restoration, reporting and strengthening. In situations of collapse of disasters shelters itself, immediate relief measures enroute creation of alternative shelter either at the same place or at different ones.
The principal shelter relief materials required for distribution by relief camps include roofing item, camping gears, plastic sheets, food, water, medicines etc. Disaster prone structures in disaster-prone areas may also be erected regularly or in a phased manner so as to house the affected population in times of need. Similar structures could also be made for the animal population. Such facilities could also be otherwise allowed to be used for educational, medical (health) training or other purpose, as desired by the local community in normal disaster free time.
Shelter relocation with first construction of homes on a new site may also be adopted in areas where large scale devastation may have taken place. Retrofitting may also serve as a strategy to reduce the vulnerability of the structure against future disasters. Appropriate disaster resistant construction features, if incorporated properly, can prove itself to be a very potent relief measure.
The most important relief measure, in terms of psychological support, however, may be the provisions made for securing the property (i.e. valuables, cash, household items, etc.). Timely and full evacuation, protection of antisocial elements and proper handling of situation can help secure the property of disaster affected people.
Livestock related relief measures need to focus at:
1. Reducing the loss of animal life
2. Reducing the amount of injury to animals
3. Reducing animal disability
4. Preventing epidemics due to animals
5. Preventing epidemics among animals
6. Preventing animals from starvation
7. Preventing ongoing neglect of livestock problems during disaster
8. Active animal husbandry services during post-disaster period with proper stock of medicines related facilities and availability of doctors.
Quick erection of livestock shelters, sustainable fodder stock; special training to veterinary staff and local community contingency plan for relocating affected animals, including infrastructure facilities required; provision for drinking water, protection against beasts of prey and poisonous insects, snakes and reptiles, maintenance of proper hygiene, damage assessment by veterinary and para-veterinary staff, disposal of dead animals, involving NGOs and local community in relief activities and animal care, and reconstruction of damaged veterinary and artificial examination centres, etc. are some of the most required relief measures as far as livestock are concerned during and post-disaster period.
So far as removal of debris and disposal of the dead human beings/animals are concerned during the post- disaster phase, they constitute vital aspect of emergency relief measures. Debris clearance is done to protect both the trapped life and valuable items.
Rescue operations can be done most successfully when debris clearance is undertaken in a systematic way. With the use of proper technology and skilled trained man-power, debris clearance can finally pave way for a very successful rescue and relief operations.
It involved following steps in order of general priority:
(i) Search for trapped survivors and related debris removal
(ii) Tracing people buried under rubble and related debris clearance, carefully and scientific
(iii) Cordoning of the most affected areas and allowing technical, trained people to undertake such operations
(iv) Bystanders to be allowed only when left with no other options
(v) Organising technological and monetary support such as cranes, lifts, earth moving equipments, bulldozers cutters, drills, trucks etc.
(vi) Demolition of irreparable heavily damaged buildings
(vii) Structural geophysical survey of whole built-up area.
Main debris types include concrete buildings, flyovers, bridges, uprooted trees, electric and telephone boardings, damaged vehicles/goods, accumulated solid waste. With the use of electronic devices, flash lights, snuffer dogs, the trapped lives need to be rescued first, before initiating major efforts for debris clearance. However, caution should be exercised not to temper with any infrastructure and service networks.
Disposal of Dead Bodies:
Disposal of dead bodies, of both human and animal, is a major relief operation work during the post-disaster period. This particular assignment has to be undertaken with the sense of urgency as decomposing dead bodies can not only spread highly unpleasant odour but can also lead to various epidemics.
Human bodies, once identified need to be disposed with dignity keeping the social, religious and cultural ethos in mind.
Proper fuel for mass cremation or proper mass burial facilities need to be created for unidentified bodies, after carefully selecting the disposal site.
Animal bodies, particularly that of stray animals, are accorded low priority, as the rescuers are generally unwilling to handle animal carcasses. Taking the health and environment threats into account, extraction of hides or bones or other recoverable materials should be completely banned. Local volunteer need to be motivated to undertake the aforementioned tasks even before the official action comes into action for such purposes.
Fire Control and Protection:
Control of fire in post-disaster period is another amount rescue measure which needs proper consideration. Natural fires, such as forest fire, and man-made ones should-be taken up seriously. While forest fires can happen due to volcano eruptions, forests, lighting in the sky or by human carelessness. Deforestation, unscientifically planted forests without open patches, monoculture, and absence of regular pruning and non-clearance of fallen materials on the ground are few factors which promote forest fire to convert itself into a catastrophic fire disaster.
Land clearing by fire, illicit felling of trees, shifting cultivation, and corruption on the part of forest officials are other deliberate reasons. However, carelessness on the part of human beings is perhaps the biggest reason for forest fires. Factors which need to be taken into account while controlling forest-fires include – fuel power, vulnerable southern slopes, topography, rain, and weather conditions.
An effective wild fire control measure includes early prevention, planning and management and incident management techniques. Fore fighting can be undertaken principally by three methods i.e. direct method, indirect method (i.e. by using natural breaks) and a combination of both.
Fire-line procedures while working at the fire edge should be properly understood and followed. Education and training should be provided to vulnerable communities, volunteers, NGOs. Expert group for particular five fighting should be prepared with all infrastructure support.
Rapid detection and flashing the message instantaneously can go a long way. Fire brigade force both at group and in the air, should be created fire contingency plan should incorporate early warning systems, setting-up of the control rooms, depot services for service squads and safe transportation facilities. Action plan should incorporate stages like making alert, taking preparatory measures and integrated operational works.
Man-made fires, both intentional (i.e. riots terrorism, suicides, rivalry etc.) and un-intention (i.e. human carelessness accident, violation of safety norms while constructing buildings and non-buildings activities, causes have to be understood and cared for Non-buildings include slums, temporary structures, camps, road vehicles, railway repair yards etc.
Major fire protection and control measures include the following:
(i) Creation of elaborate safety norms.
(ii) Adherence to related building bye-laws.
(iii) Use fire-proof/fire resistant materials, structures and design.
(iv) Qualified and trained force protection and control engines.
(v) Public awareness of preventive techniques and prescribed guidelines.
(vi) Punishment for defaulters, both capital and jail term.
(vii) Fire-fighting capability built-up in terms of human capacity building, equipment facilities and water resources.
(viii) Up-dating on prevention, detection and fire-fighting technique and changes adopted accordingly.
(ix) Regular mock exercises/drills.
(x) Printed evacuation plans appearing clearly at required places, such as lifts, staircases, gathering places, etc., and exist signs permanently illuminated independently.
(xi) Placing push button fire alarms.
(xii) Placing fire-extinguishers.
(xiii) Unobstructed staircases/doors/routes.
(xiv) Clearly printed evacuation instructions placed properly.
Disaster Damage Assessment:
Rapid disaster damage assessments are done both for emergency relief measures (e.g. for food, water, cloth, shelter medicines, etc.) and for long-term restoration and rehabilitation measures, requiring therefore a detailed technical analysis.
The later however, also reflects on the type of failure which led to the disaster i.e. disaster causation. In sum disaster damage assessment is a vital tool to assimilate the extent of impact of a disaster, both short-term and long-term, and forms the basis for any disaster management and mitigation process and action plan.
Disaster damage-assessments consist of following elements:
(i) Identification of type of information needed and sources of data-collection
(ii) Data collection through primary and secondary sources.
(iii) Analysis of data
(iv) Data interpretation
(v) Report-writing
(vi) Drawing conclusion
(vii) Making forecasts
(viii) Recommendations and measures suggested for decision-makers, planners, implementers community groups, NGOs etc.
While rehabilitation relates to the work undertaken in weeks and months after a disaster occurs aimed at the restoration of basic services to enable the human population, return to normalcy, disaster relief relates to the immediate days and weeks in post-disaster phase when all-round attempts are made to fulfill the basic needs like food, clothing, shelter, medicines, etc. to the victims.
So in a way the aim of any disaster management policy is to first provide for proper relief and rehabilitation to the target population in an organised way. In addition it also aims at limiting the damage to the affected community, in the form of saving lives and property, so as to prevent the possible situation of further deterioration.
Groups and communities are asked to network and channelise their efforts and shape the required infrastructure of society such that recurrence of scarcities and other related calamities, such as epidemics, are minimised.
Disaster relief involves adequate infrastructure setup and quick response on the part of the entire system, primarily dealt with by governments and institutions. On the other hand, disaster preparedness is a continuous process which had to involve all sections of society. In a way, this preempts that there is an important role of local communities and local institutions which need to create and sustain disaster preparedness.
Rehabilitation:
It is to be noted that the social rehabilitation package consists of the following items:
(A) Health care facilities and infrastructure re-strengthening is very important at the time of emergency period during disaster or during spread of epidemic in post-disaster phase. For aforementioned purpose and for proper information exchange and co-ordination of medical support during fact emergencies, Control centres must be established in vital locations.
State level information exchange and networking among various health departments, directorates of health services, medical education centres hospitals etc., should take place. Control centres may also be used for collection and storage of immediate medical supplies received from various sources including international relief agencies/ Groups/common unflinching commitment of the available health machinery remains the key element for better results.
Also, for making the health related disaster preparedness plan efficient and workable, additional facilities within the existing hospital and required. Putting the objectives of such plan for future health sector infrastructure and creation of additional facilities, thereby, becomes the main tasks.
(B) Resurrection of Educational Facilities in the affected areas is another immediate task. Besides constant counselling of teachers and students, necessary educational equipments, books, writing materials and transport facilities need to be provided in time. For better results, however, adherence to a practice patony mode of education is recommended. Proper orientation sessions need to be held so as to train the group members in identification of target group’s choice of methodology, typology and time schedules.
(C) Rehabilitation of Women and Children, the most vulnerable groups during disaster, is the matter of utmost priority.
Economic Aspects of Rehabilitation:
Agricultural Rehabilitation, both short-term and long- term, of the affected areas; while short term measures mainly concerns with sowing of seeds for the next crop or/and harvesting of the remaining portion of crops, provisions should also be made with respect to availability and distribution of fertilizers, insecticides or pesticides.
On the other hand, the long-term measures include the following:
(i) Making provision for large number of agriculture equipments and implements, in tradition to other agricultural inputs.
(ii) A revival of irrigation wells and pump-sets.
(iii) A proper and scientific study to assess the actual situation/condition of required system and their urgent rehabilitation.
(a) With respect to housing elements such as location of rehabilitation and reconstruction is of utmost important depending on the kind of disaster that generally strikes that region. The vital sub-components here are acquisition of land for resettlement with required compensation, land-use and reconstruction of the houses.
(b) With respect to infrastructure and related facilities, components, such as, improvement of transit shelters infrastructure and amenities in relocated areas, roads, and bridges, public buildings, repair and strengthen of historical monuments, etc.
(c) Artisans’ and Small Businessmen’ Rehabilitation – A plan which takes care of necessities such as work sheds, tool kits, soft loans and setting up of small industrial units. Other inputs which need to be taken care of include interval roads, electricity supply, water supply, etc.
(d) Livestocks’ Rehabilitation – It will include replacement of lost/disabled livestock, making provisions for fodder, cattle sheds, and services related to animals husbandry including preventive medication for survival livestock epidemics.
(e) Reconstruction and rehabilitation, besides being priority disaster management activity, should also be viewed as a development oriented one. This will help integrate the rehabilitation process with the overall development process, besides seeking out opportunities even in threat situations.
In sum a timely launch of long-term rehabilitation strategy is what one needs to look for in such situations. Also, it is important to focus on the building construction details, elements systems, technologies, etc. Planning and architectural designs guidelines which involve the participation of local artisans and households should be preferred.
Affordable and specialising building structures that can withstand the destabilising forces of related disasters need to be erected. No doubt, while devising both structure and non-structural disaster mitigation strategies, it is necessary to recognise and assimilate integrate the useful elements of indigenous technology wisdom, and locally available materials and the cost-effective traditional coping mechanisms practical locally in the said disaster-prone area.
(ii) As far as economic rehabilitation is concerned, both economic-loss-assessment and fund-raising-initiative attain importance. The subcomponents which need to be taken into account include replacement of farm implement and related minor equipment; replacement of cattle stock; advancement of skilled man-power and small-scale- entrepreneurs as to create more job opportunities repair/reconstruction of dug wells/tube-well/irrigation systems; etc.
(iii) As far as ecological restoration activities are concerned, priority needs to be given to afforestation, restoration of aquifers, etc.
(iv) As far as agricultural and irrigation are concerned, reconstruction and rehabilitation may be provided through food-supply, improvement of irrigation systems, crop and soil conservation practices, water-shed management canal irrigation, etc. Damage caused, both in physical and economic terms, to the agriculture and irrigation by natural disasters are considered in terms of actual damage to agriculture and related infrastructure, impacts on cropping pattern and crop- varied.
Assessment of crop damage may be done with the help of following crop-wise information on:
(a) Completely damaged, partially damaged and reason areas, and
(b) Yield under normal, partially damage and reason conditions.
For accurate assessment, selection of particular aging to undertake such job and the motive/purpose behind such assessments, are very significant. Assessment of damage to the irrigation system can also be done both in physical terms and in terms of loss of infrastructure and the recurrent loss caused thereby.
Notable measures to combat the losses caused to agriculture and irrigation include the following:
(a) Adoption of alternative cropping pattern, involving techniques like Crop Life Saving Technique, Compensatory Cropping Programme, Intermixed cropping etc.
(b) Sustainable watershed management by construction of check-dams, contour binding, nala plugging, etc. supports with required vegetative cover.
(c) Undertaking wager harvesting in small catchments, at micro-scale.
Finally, development of pasture lands, livestock, farm forestry and other relief measures are also of considerable importance as far as rehabilitation and reconstruction is concerned in disaster-let areas. Suspension and remission of land revenue, provision of temporary employment to affected people, strengthening of public distribution system and development of village industries are also vital in this regard.
(v) Proper housing is concerned – It is a major tool to resist disasters including relocation. The impact of disasters like earth quakes cyclones, floods etc. can be greatly reduced by sustainable planning and designing of housing as per the nature of the specific disaster prone areas. From the earthquake point of view, where building and associated infrastructures are worst threatened the suggested building types could be of engineered type or non-engineered one.
The former consists of RCC frame and shear wall buildings steel buildings with rigid joints, etc. while the area i.e. engineered buildings. It is mostly the non-engineered buildings, made with local materials, contractors, masons, etc. that suffer maximum devastation during earthquakes.
The worst performance is by stone masonary buildings, followed by earthen buildings, brick buildings depending upon type of roof, mortar used and overall quality). The performance of wooden buildings is much better. Earthquake resistant house construction is, therefore, most in demand in earthquake-prone areas.
The location and siting of such earthquake resistant housing projects depend upon factors such as stability of slope, loose sands or sensitive clays, etc. The layout of such houses depends upon their symmetry, rectangularity, separation of blocks, simplicity and overall enclosed area.
The design aspects suitable for being disaster resistant vary for earthen houses, brick building, and stone buildings. Similarly, the priorities for cyclone resistant house construction and flood resistant house construction depend largely on factors as mentioned above, however with few remarkable differences in location and siting, layout, and design aspects in particular w.r.t. roofs, projection, wall and supporting frames door and window openings in walls. Flood prone area planning involves proper reevaluation of urban and rural land-use and flood plain zoning.
Another area of concern regarding housing issue in disaster struck area is related to retrofitting repairing and strengthening of houses. Only the modern techniques of construction of buildings prescribe the required construction materials and techniques which are helpful in providing buildings which can considerable reduced the damage supposed to be inflicted by a particular disaster.
Problems Resulting from the Lack of a Well-Defined Veterinary Disaster Management Plan during Huricane Andrew (1992, USA):
(a) Waste of precious time in trying to locate names and phone numbers because no list had been prepared in advance of individuals, organisations and groups to assist in collecting, sheltering and providing badly needed medical care for pets and livestock alike.
(b) Delay in donation of cages, food, mobile phones, and fax machines, transportation and medical supplies because donors did not know where to send them.
(c) Disappearance of supplies with no one certain of how they had been used, because ownership, authority and proper methods to document their use were unclear.
(d) Development of rivalries between various groups contributing to relief efforts with no one clearly in charge to settle disputes.
(e) Inadequate communication particularly a shortage of telephone lines to the control centre for animal aid set up in the central control area.
(f) Lack of clear identification and lack of a central clearing house for animals transported to other areas for shelter prevented many animals from being returned to their owners.
(g) Rumours such as a story that all horses and stray dogs were being shot on site flourished and frightened victims in an environment so chaotic that the normally unbelievable was easily believed.