Protection of wildlife was part of our culture. Vedanthangal, one of the important birding areas in the country enjoys protection from the local people for the last 250 years. With the enactment of Wildlife Protection Act (1972), wildlife in the country is protected in the national parks, sanctuaries, conservation reserve and community reserves. These four areas comprise to form the protected area (PA) network of our country.
Presently there are 102 national parks, 515 wildlife sanctuaries, 48 conservation reserves and 4 community reserves in India. Around 1, 61,132 square km area (4.90 per cent) of the total geographical area of the country is under the protected area network. Protected area is defined as “An area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means” (IUCN 2004).
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Biological diversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part, this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems (CBD 1992).
The period from 1971 to 90 saw a huge growth of protected areas in the country. This can be attributed to reasons like enactment of Wildlife Protection Act (1972), Forest Conservation Act (1980) and increased awareness among the policy makers and the people. Demand for land for various developmental works and increasing human wildlife conflict slowed down the pace of further expansion of the PAs after 1990.
Of these four categories of protected area, conservation reserve and community reserve came into existence following the amendment of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972) in 2006. Unlike national park and wildlife sanctuaries both conservation reserve and community reserve do not put any restriction on the existing land use of the area concerned. This has helped in expansion of the PA network in the last 2 years. All the 52 PAs added from 2010 belong to either the conservation reserve or the community reserve.
i. National Park:
National Parks (NP) are areas of land and/or sea designated to protect the ecological integrity of one or more ecosystems for posterity. Consumptive use of any resource from a national park is prohibited. However use of the area for educational, scientific, spiritual and recreational purposes is permitted but regulated. National parks get the highest degree of protection from the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 e.g. Corbett National Park, Keoladeo National Park, etc.
ii. Sanctuary:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Wildlife Sanctuaries (WLS) are areas of land and / or sea designated to protect an area and managed by regular interventions aimed at a particular species. That is the reason why we find wildlife sanctuaries generally named with a species like Wild Ass Sanctuary of Gujarat, Musk Deer Wildlife Sanctuary of Uttarakhand, etc.
Major differences between NP and WLS are:
i. No rights of people is allowed in a national park.
ii. Removal of any resource from a national park is prohibited. However removal is permitted if helps in habitat management.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
iii. Advisory committee can be formed for the management of a wildlife sanctuary only and not for a national park (see Section: 33 B of Wildlife Protection Act, 1972).
iii. Conservation Reserve:
Conservation Reserve are designated by the State Government on areas owned by the Government, (after having consultations with the local communities) particularly the areas adjacent to national parks and sanctuaries and those areas which link one protected area with another, for protecting landscapes, seascapes, flora and fauna and their habitat.
iv. Community Reserve:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
The State Government may, where the community or an individual has volunteered to conserve wildlife and its habitat, declare any private or community land not comprised within a national park, sanctuary or a conservation reserve, as a community reserve, for protecting fauna, flora and traditional or cultural conservation values and practices. Thus, these four categories namely national park, sanctuary, conservation reserve and community reserve are the four legal categories of protected areas in our country.
Major differences between conservation reserve and community reserve are:
i. Conservation area can only be declared on Government land whereas community reserve can be declared on a private or a community land.
ii. Protection of landscapes and seascapes is given emphasis in a conservation reserve, whereas protection of traditional and cultural values is given importance in a community reserve.
Protected Area:
IUCN Categories of Protected Area (IUCN 2004) are:
Ia: Strict nature reserve
lb: Wilderness area
II: National park
III: Natural monument or feature
IV: Habitat/species management area
V: Protected landscape/seascape
VI: Protected area with sustainable use of natural resources
India is one of the few countries to use a scientific method in conservation planning both at the national and regional levels. The biogeographic classification developed by the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) in 1988 provides a scientific framework to have representative network of protected areas in the country. The entire country is divided into 10 biogeographic zones and 26 biotic provinces. The zone wise detail regarding the protected area is given in Table 21.3.
A look at the Table 21.3 reveals that the protected areas are not balanced across the different biogeographic zones. The biogeographic classification was developed in 1988 and by that time itself more than 400 protected areas were created in our country. Absence of any tool for planning would have resulted in this skewed distribution of protected areas across the zones.
Further, the pace of protected area creation too slowed down after 1990s which also provided less opportunity for balancing this distribution. Gangetic plains, one of the most fertile parts of the country, have the lowest area i.e. 2.21 per cent under protected area when compared to its total area. The populations density in this zone is one of the highest in the country and creating new PAs in this zone would not only be difficulty but also would create lot of social unrest.
On the contrary, zones with lot of inaccessible mountains, islands, etc., are well protected e.g. 18.75 per cent islands and 19.82 per cent of the Himalayas. Creation of national parks in coming years would be very difficult for reasons like the rising demand for resources and rising population. However scope for establishing conservation reserve and community reserve is ample. If proper planning is done the country can have few more PAs under these two categories.
Problems Faced by the PAs:
The protected areas across the country are not free of any problem. Problems are many and unique to each protected area.
Broadly the major problems faced by these PAs are:
(1) Human pressure both from living inside and outside the PA
(2) Grazing pressure especially that by the unproductive cattle
(3) Absence of any clearly laid out policy on eco-sensitive zones around the PA
(4) Non-completion of the legal process in creation of PA which results in legal ambiguity about the PA status
Apart from these four categories of protected areas, there are few more areas protected/designated under various international treaties /conventions like the Ramsar Convention and World Heritage Convention.
Ramsar Sites:
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance is an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. This convention was adopted at Ramsar, an Iranian city in 2 February 1971 and came into force in 1975. At present there are 160 contracting parties with 2006 sites designated as Ramsar sites with a total surface area of 19,28,220 square km.
Wise use of wetlands is the focal point of this convention and wise use is defined as “the maintenance of their (wetlands) ecological character, achieved through the implementation of ecosystem approaches, within the context of sustainable development”. Unlike the national park where resource use is prohibited, Ramsar convention advocates use of wetland resources in a sustainable way.
India joined the convention on 1 February 1982 and there are presently 25 sites designated as Ramsar sites from our country with a surface area 6,771.31 Square Km. There are 9 criteria given by Ramsar on which a site can be designated. If for any reason, a site loses its ecological character or losing its ecological character for which it was initially recognized, then that site is put under a record called Montreaux Record.
Once a site is put in the Montreaux Record, the contracting party will have to take such necessary steps so that the ecological character of the site is restored and the site is removed from the Montreaux Record. In India, two sites Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) and Loktak Lake (Manipur) are in the Montreaux Record.
World Cultural and Natural Heritage Sites:
UNESCO’s Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage was adopted in the General Conference of the UNESCO in Paris from 17 October to 21 November 1972. Under this convention a state party can nominate a site for its Outstanding Universal Value and get it designated either as a cultural or natural heritage sites. Outstanding Universal Value is defined as “cultural and/or natural significance which is so exceptional as to transcend national boundaries and to be of common importance for present and future generations of all humanity”.
The protection of these sites for posterity i.e. for both the present and future generations is the highest importance. For the purpose of identifying site, 10 criteria is given under the convention. Every State Party should prepare a tentative list of sites from which designation are made. At present there are 936 properties from 153 State Parties (countries). Of these 936 properties, 725 are cultural properties, 183 natural properties and 28 mixed properties. Presently, 189 countries have ratified this convention. In India, there are 23 cultural heritage properties and 5 natural heritage properties.
Due to threats if any property is in danger of losing its outstanding universal value for which it was inscribed, then they are put in a danger list. It becomes the responsibility of the state party concerned to take such steps to reduce the damage and bring back the property to its original state. At present there are 35 properties in the danger list and none from our country. As many as 1559 properties from 166 state parties are in the tentative list.
From India, 32 properties are in the tentative list, of which 7 properties are from the natural significance. They are Bhitarkanika Conservation Area, Desert National Park, Great Himalayan National Park, Kangchendzonga National Park, Western Ghats Cluster and Wild Ass Sanctuary (Little Rann of Kutch, Gujarat).
Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme is an intergovernmental scientific programme initiated under the UNESCO in 1970s. Man is recognized as an integral part of the ecosystem and it aims to set a scientific basis for the improvement of the relationships between people and their environment globally. This is a multidisciplinary programme which includes ecological sciences, social sciences and economics to develop systems that not only safeguard the ecosystem but also promotes development which is culturally and socially acceptable and environmentally sustainable.
Sites established by countries for the above intergovernmental scientific programme and recognized by the Man and Biosphere Programme is called as a Biosphere Reserve. Biosphere may include a terrestrial ecosystem or a coastal ecosystem or a marine ecosystem or a combination of these. Currently, there are 580 sites designated as biosphere reserves from 114 countries and India now has 17 biosphere reserves. Nilgri (2000), Gulf of Mannar (2001), Sunderban (2001), Nandadevi (2004), Nokrek (2009), Pachmarhi (2009) and Simlipal (2009) are the biosphere reserves identified by the MAB programme and are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR).
Tiger occupies the centre stage of Wildlife conservation in our country. People are always attracted towards this majestic animal and at the same time also were hunted in large numbers. At the beginning of the last century, it was believed that there were around 40,000 (?) tigers in our country. E.P. Gee gave a figure of 4000 tigers in 1965, whereas Kailash Sankhala put the figure at 2500 in 1969. Some biologists believed that these magnificent animals might disappear and might not see the 21st century.
Kailash Sankhala presented a report “Vanishing Tigers” in the parliament. During the IUCN General Meeting held in Delhi in 1969, decision on ban on killing of tigers was taken. The Indian Board for Wildlife advised all the State Governments to impose a complete ban on killing of tigers. Unfortunately, this period of 1969-79 witnessed large scale hunting of tigers in the country.
Guy Mountfort’s (a trustee of WWF) continued effort on the issue of tiger conservation, lead to the constitution of an 11 member task force with Dr. Karan Singh as Chairman and Kailash Sankhala as Officer on Special Duty by then Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi. The task force gave the report in August 1972. First All India Tiger Census conducted during this period estimated the tiger population as 1827. This year also saw the enactment of Wildlife protection Act.
Growing awareness and by the commitment of our leaders especially Mrs. Indira Gandhi, an ambitious project to protect tigers was launched on 1 April 1973 at Corbett National Park as a Central Sector Scheme (later made a Centrally Sponsored Scheme). Manas, Palamau, Simlipal, Corbett, Kanha, Melghat, Bandipur, Ranthambhore and Sunderbans were the first nine places declared as a tiger reserve. Now project tiger is renamed as National Tiger Conservation Authority.
The main emphasis under the Project Tiger was given to sound wildlife management practices, protection and site specific eco-development activities to reduce the dependence of the people on the reserve. Tiger Reserves are management units unlike National Park and Wildlife Sanctuaries which are legal categories of protected area. Tiger reserve may comprise a National Park/Wildlife Sanctuary or both or a forest area.
Tiger reserves are divided into a core and a buffer area. In the core, disturbance is kept at a minimum so that the tigers are given a near natural environment to breed and survive. Extraction of resources from the core is totally prohibited whereas they are regulated in the buffer area. Eco-development activities are carried out in the buffer area so that the impact on the core is reduced. Further, these eco- development activities help the people to improve their living standards in way that their dependence on the resources of the tiger reserve is reduced.
Management plans were drawn for every tiger reserve based on the following principles:
(1) Elimination of all forms of human exploitation and biotic disturbance from the core area and rationalization of activities in the buffer zone.
(2) Restricting the habitat management only to repair the damages done to the ecosystem by human and other interferences, so as to facilitate recovery of the ecosystem to its natural state.
(3) Monitoring the faunal and floral changes over time and carrying out research about wildlife.
Management of the individual tiger reserve is the responsibility of the State Government concerned. However, the Central Government through Project Tiger Directorate (Ministry of Environment and Forests) gives financial support to the tiger reserves in carrying out various activities including village relocation under a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (both the Central and State Government shares the expenditure). The number of tiger reserves increased rapidly and it is now 39 reserves in the 17 range states of our country.
Tiger Population Estimation:
Till few years back, Pug mark technique was followed to estimate the number of tigers in the country. This simple technique involves collection of the foot print of tigers by using plaster of paris and estimating the number of individuals after deducting the duplications of the foot print.
This method was originally developed by Shri. S.R. Choudhry, a Forest Officer, in 1970’s known as the “co-operation census” where in the pugmark evidences were combined with other evidences like sighting, etc., to arrive at a figure. Pug marks will not be identical between two individuals and this was used in calculating the number of animals in any particular area.
During a normal walk, the hind limb mark super imposes on the fore limb mark and the fore limb pug mark of both sexes almost look alike (whereas the hind limb pug mark of a male looks more squarish and of the female a rectangular one). For these reasons, it has been a practice to take impression of the left hind pug mark while doing a tiger census in the pug mark technique.
However, difference in the substrate like a wet surface and dry surface; sandy surface and hard surface; pug mark of an individual will look different leading into over estimation. Pugmark impression pads (PIP – surface prepared specifically for collection of pug mark impression) are used to reduce the error caused due to the difference in the surface.
If careful selection of the site and proper training to the census workers is not done, the chances for error in arriving at a figure reasonably close to the actual population would be high. This was always an interesting point of debate in the wildlife circle.
The Sariska episode, in a way changed the way the census was carried out for estimating tiger population. The Sariska Tiger Reserve (Rajasthan) was claiming 16-18 tigers in the May, 2004. But by December it was found out that Sariska is devoid of any tigers (which were later confirmed by the Wildlife Institute of India).
Following this crisis, a task force was constituted by the Prime Minister and the task force came up with a detailed report “Joining Dots” (available in the website of Project Tiger) dealing with almost every issue related to tiger conservation in India. After this episode, a new three phase method developed by the Wildlife Institute of India and the National Tiger Conservation Authority is used to estimate the tiger population.
In this new method, a ground survey is conducted at the field level to collect data related to presence or absence of tiger, sign density, etc., at the Phase I level. In the Phase II satellite data and statistical methods are used to stratify the areas into density categories. Finally, in the Phase III, camera traps are used to capture the images of tiger and the tiger numbers in a given area is estimated from this data.
The Asian Elephant is found in 13 countries with an estimated population of 39,400 to 47,400 in wild and around 13,700-47,400 under captivity. In India, there are around 27,700 elephants in the wild and 3,500 under captivity. This amounts to almost 50 per cent of the wild population and 20 per cent of captive population of the world. Elephants (like tiger) were always closely linked with humans.
In India, conservation efforts in Elephant started as early as in 1873 with the enactment of the Madras Wild Elephants Preservation Act, followed by Elephant Preservation Act in 1879 and inclusion of Elephants in Wildlife Protection Act in 1972 (in Schedule II of Part I). In 1977, Elephant was included in the Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act. A ban on export and import of Indian ivory was brought in 1978 and a complete ban on domestic trade was brought in 1991. Project Elephant, an ambitious project for elephant conservation was launched in 1991.
Unlike other animals, elephants, the largest terrestrial animal differ in a variety of way. The requirement of food and water is so high that they themselves can degrade the habitat. They require a large area for movement and hence are difficult to manage in small protected areas. Their large home ranges also create a large interface with people, thereby increasing the conflict situation. In spite of all these peculiarities/difficulties, the population of elephants in the country is steadily increasing (15,627 in 1960 to 27,700 in 2007). If population is on the rise, where is the problem?
The problems are:
i. Poaching of tuskers for their tusk over a continued period of time has resulted in a skewed male female ratio (e.g. 1 male bull to 29 adult cow in Mudumalai in 1999)
ii. The habitat degradation and change in land use pattern is pulling these magnificent animals into farms and villages and resulting in the damage to crops and life.
iii. Increasing hostility towards the animal is leading to poisoning and electrocution of these animals in a large scale.
iv. Development projects like railway networks, canal networks, roads, etc. have cut the once contiguous area into smaller fragments. This again has resulted in increased human elephant conflict.
v. In few states there is a negative trend in the population.
In general, the following strategies would help in solving (mitigating) the problem:
i. Protection measures must be up scaled and enhanced by creating proper infrastructure like staying posts for the staff, strengthening the communication network and increasing the mobility of the staff involved in protection.
ii. Inter-state coordination committees must be made effective so as to enable easy flow of information about the movement of animals.
iii. Factors responsible for habitat degradation and fragmentation must be identified and appropriate action / steps to address them must be taken on a planned manner.
iv. Research work must be encouraged and must be carried out throughout the country to find out answers for the problems faced both by the forest department and people.
v. Eco-development activities must be initiated in the elephant areas aiming at a larger involvement of people in the efforts of conservation and also in creating a platform for solving the conflict.
vi. Awareness programmes must be conducted extensively to educate people about the reason for the conflict and in the process enable them to find out an ecologically viable solution like change in crops, use of barriers, reduction in resource utilization from the elephant habitat, etc.
vii. Procedure to compensate for the damages done by elephants must be simplified and the delivery system must be made efficient and transparent.
viii. Special sensitization programmes must be conducted for the personnel from all line departments. This would help the personnel from other departments to understand the issue and design an ecologically sound development project.
ix. Use of a celebrity / public figure in advertisements regarding the importance of elephant conservation will generate lot of good will to the animal from the public.
Reintroducing Rare and Endangered Species:
The terms re-introduction, translocation, introduction, etc. are used loosely many a times. Knowing the difference and what exactly these term mean thus becomes important for a student of wildlife science. Intentional introduction or accidental dispersal of an organism outside its historically known native range is called Introduction. Re-introduction is defined as an attempt to establish a species in an area which was once part of its historical range, but from which it has been extirpated or become extinct (IUCN 1988).
The major difference is about the organism’s historical range (whether or not the species concerned is released outside or inside its historical range). As the definition says, re-introduction aims to establish a viable free ranging population of a species in its historical range.
Such successful establishment of species in its historical range is called as re-establishment. Deliberate and mediated movement of wild individuals or populations from one part of their range to another is called as translocation (IUCN 1988).
Some examples are:
i. Re-Introduction:
Proposed Cheetah re-introduction; and movement of Gaur from Kanha to Bhandavgarh
ii. Introduction:
Intentional introduction of an alien species Lantana as an ornamental plant in India.
iii. Translocation:
Movement of Sambar from Sariska Tiger Reserve to Kumbalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan.
The IUCN’s (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) Re-introduction Specialist Group (RSG) prepares both generic and species specific guidelines regarding re- introduction. The RSG is a network of specialists whose aim is to combat the ongoing and massive loss of biodiversity by using re-introductions as a responsible tool for the management and restoration of biodiversity through actively developing and promoting sound inter-disciplinary scientific information, policy and practice to establish viable wild populations in their natural habitats.